Monday, April 17, 2017

April 2017 - May 2017

Loanable Funds Market Notes 

Is an interest rate of 50% good or bad?
  • It is bad for borrowers but good for lenders 
The loanable funds market is the private sector supply & demand of loans 
  • This market brings together those who want to lend money (savers) & those who want to borrow (firms with investment spending projects)
  • This market shows the effect on REAL INTEREST RATE 
  • Demand- Inverse relationship between real interest rate & quantity loans demanded.
  • Supply- Direct relationship between real interest rate & quantity loans supplied 
    • NOT the same as money market (SUPPLY is not vertical) 
Prime Rate 
  • Interest rate that banks charge their most credit worthy costumers

Expansionary Policy  
Contractionary Policy  

Open Market Operation 


 Buy Bond

 Sell Bond 

Reserve Requirement 



↑ 

Discount Rate 


 ↓


 Bank Reserve 


 ↑


 Money Supply 


 ↑


Federal Fund Rate 





Philip's Curve

What is Philip's Curve?

  • An inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation.
  • As one increases, the other decreases
  • An increase in AD will cost price level and real output to increase, which increases inflation and reduces unemployment
  • Each point on the Philip's curve corresponds to a different level of output 
  • Since wages are sticky, inflation changes move the points on the SRPC
  • If inflation persists, and the expected rate of inflation rises, then the entire SRPC moves upward.
What is Stagflation?

  • When inflation and unemployment rise simultaneously, which results in an increase in input cost
  • Philip's curve shifts outward.
What is Supply Shocks?
  • Sudden large increase in resource costs.
  • If inflation expectations drop, due to new technology or efficiency, then the SPRC will move downward.
  • LRPC occurs at the natural rate of unemployment
  • Represented by a vertical line
  • No trade-off between unemployment and inflation because the economy produces at the full employment output level.
  • Will only shift if LRAS shifts.
  • Increases in unemployment shifts LRPC to the right.
  • Decreases in unemployment shifts LRPC to the left.
  • Natural rate of unemployment is equal to frictional, structural and seasonal.
  • Major LRPC assumption is that more worker benefits create higher natural rates and fewer worker benefits create lower natural rates.
What is Misery Index?
  • A combination of unemployment and inflation in any given year.
  • Single- digit misery = good.

What happens in the Long-Run?


Inflation

What is Inflation?

  • It is a rise in the general level of prices
What is Deflation?

  • It is a general decline in the economy's price level.
What is Disinflation?

  • It is a reduction in the inflation rate from year to year.
What is Hyperinflation?

  • A rapid rise in the price level
  • An extremely high rate of inflation



Laffer Curve

What is Supply- Side economics/ Reaganomics?

  • trying to stimulate production of supply to spur output

1) Cut taxes & government regulations to increase incentives for business and individuals
2) Business invest and expand creating jobs
3) People work, save, and spend more.

What is the Laffer Curve?

  • Depicts a theoretical relationship between tax rates and tax revenues
What are some Criticisms of the Laffer Curve?

1) Empirical evidence suggests that the impact of the tax rates on incentives to work, save and invest are small.
2) Tax cuts also increase demand, which can feel inflation and demand impacts may exceed supply impacts.
3) Where the economy is actually located on the Laffer curve is difficult to determine.



Balance of Payments

What is the Balance of Payments?

  • Measure of money inflows and outflows between the U.S and the rest of the world.
  • Inflows are referred to as CREDITS
  • Outflows are referred to as DEBITS
It is Divided into 3 Accounts:
  1. Current Account
  2. Capital/ Financial Account
  3. Official Reserves Account
What is the Current Account?
  • Balance of Trade or Net Exports
  • Exports (-) Imports
  • Exports create a credit to the balance of payments
  • Imports create a debit to the balance of payments
Net foreign income is earned by U.S. owned foreign assets (-) income paid to the foreign held U.S. assets.
Net Transfers are foreign Aids or a debit to the current account
What is the Capital/ Financial Account?

  • The balance of Capital ownership
  • Includes the purchase of both real and financial assets.
  • Direct investment in the U.S. is a credit to the capital account
  • Direct invest by U.S firms/ individuals in a foreign country are debits to the capital account.
  • Purchase of foreign financial assets represents a debit to the capital account.
  • Purchase of domestic financial assets by foreigners represent a credit to the capital account.
What is the Relationship between a Capital and Current Account:
  • They should zero each other out
  • That is... if the current account has a negative balance (deficit), then the capital account should then have a positive balance (surplus)
What are Official Reserves?
  • The foreign currency holdings of the U.S.  Federal Reserve System
  • -When there is a balance of payments surplus the Fed accumulates foreign currency and debits the balance of payments.
  • When there is a balance of payments deficit, the Fed depletes its reserves of foriegn currency and credits BOP
  • The Official Reserves zero out the BOP

FORMULAS

1.     Balance of Trade:
Good Exports + Goods Imports
2.     Balance of Goods/Services:
(Goods exports +  Service exports)
-Goods import +Service import)
3.     Currency Account: 
Balance of goods and services + Net investments + Net transfers
4.     Balance on Capital Account:
Investments or stocks or bonds
5.     Official Reserves:
Current account
(+) or (-)
+Capital account ≠ 0 (theoretically) 



Foreign Exchange 

  • Foreign Exchange:
    - The buying and selling of currency
    - In order to purchase souvenirs in France, it is first necessary for Americans to sell their dollars and buy euros
    -Any transactions that occurs in the Balance of Payments necessities foreign exchange.
    -The exchange rate is determined in the  foreign currency markets.
  • Changes in Exchange Rates:
    -Exchange rates are a function of the supply and demand for currency.
  • Exchange Rates Determinants:
    1) Consumer tastes
    2) Relative income
    3) Relative price level
    4) Speculation
  • Exports and Imports:
    -The exchange rate is a determinant of both exports and imports
    -Appreciation of the dollar causes American goods to be relatively more expensive and foreign goods to be relatively cheaper thus reducing exports and increasing imports
    -Depreciation of the dollar causes American goods to be relatively cheaper and foreign goods to be relatively cheaper and foreign goods to be relatively more expensive; thus, increasing exports and reducing imports. 

Comparative and Absolute Advantage



  • Specialization: 
    -Individuals and countries can be made better off if they will produce in what they have a comparative advantage and then trade with others for whatever else they want or need
  • Absolute and Comparative Advantage:

    Absolute:
    -The producer that can produce the most output or requires the least amount of inputs
    Comparative:
    -The producer with the lowest opportunity cost
    - Countries should trade if they have a relatively lower opportunity cost
    - They should specialize in the good that is cheaper for them to produce
  • Distinguishing Input from Output:
    - An output problem presents the data as products produced given a set of resources.
    - An input problem presents the data as amount of resources needed  to produce a  fixed amount of output.
    -When identifying absolute advantage, input problems change the scenario from who can produce the most to who can produce a given product in a least amount of time and resources.
     

March 31, 2017


  1. Reserved Requirement 
  2. Open Market Operation 
  3. Discount Rate 
What is a Reserves Requirement?
  • If you have a bank account, where is your money?
    • Only a small percent of your money is in the safe, the rest if your money has been loaned out.
  • The FED sets the amount that banks must hold 
  • The reserve requirement (reserve ratio) is the percent of deposits that banks must hold in reserve (the percent they CANNOT loan out) 
What is a Bank Deposit?
  • It is when someone (public or private) deposits money in the bank.
  • Banks keeps some of the money in reserve & loans out their excess reserves 
How to use reserve requirements?
  1. If there is a recession, what would the FED do to reserve requirement?
    • Decrease the reserve ratio 
      1. Banks hold less money & have more excess reserves 
      2. Banks create more money by loaning out excess 
      3. Money supply increases, interest rates fall, AD goes up 
  2. If there is an inflation?

March 24, 2017

Money Creation Notes 


  •  A  single bank create money by the amount of excess reserves.
  •  The banking system  as a whole can create money by a multiple of the excess reserves. 
  • MM x ER = Expansion of money 
  • Money multiplier = 1/RR 
What is the difference between New Money v. Existing Money
  • If the initial deposit in a bank comes from the FED or bank purchase of a bond or other money out of circulation (buried treasure) the deposit immediately increases money supply. 
  • The deposit then leads to further expansions of the money supply through the money creation process. 
  • The total change in Money Supply if initial deposit is New Money = Deposit + Money created by banking system. 
  • If a deposit in a bank is existing money (already counted in M1; ex- currency or checks) depositing the amount does not change the Money Supply immediately because it is already counted. 
  • Existing currency deposited into a checking account changes only the composition of the money supply from coins/paper money to checking account deposits. 
  • Total change in Money supply if deposit is existing money = banking system created money only. 

March 23, 2017

Bonds & Stocks Notes

What do we have to know about bonds & stocks?

  • Bonds= Loans 
  • Stocks= You own 
What are bonds?
  • Bonds are loans, or IOU's, that represent debt that the government or a corporation must repay to an investor. 
  • Bond holder has NO OWNERSHIP of company. 
First: If a corporation issues & sells a bond?
  • It is liability 
  • It is asset 
If the interest rate falls the percent value of the bond INCREASES 
If the interest rate rises the percent value of the bond DECREASES

Stock owners can can earn a profit, the higher to dividend. 
  1. Dividends, portions of a corporation's profit, are paid out to stockholders. (The higher the corporate profit, the higher the dividend). 
  2. A capital gain is earned when a stockholder sells stock for more than he/she paid for it. A stockholder that sells stock at a lower price than the purchase price suffers a capital loss. 

March 22, 2017

Money Market (Supply & Demand for Money) 


  • Demand for money has inverse relationship between nominal interest and quantity of money demanded. 
What happens to the quantity demanded of money when interest rates increase
  • Quantity demanded falls because individuals would prefer to have interest carrying assets instead of borrowed liabilities. 
What happens to the quantity demanded when interest rates decrease
  • Quantity demanded increases. 
What is Money Demand
  1. Change in price level 
  2. Change in income 
  3. Change in taxation that affects investment 



What happens in Money Supply?
  • If FED increases the money supply, a temporary surplus of money will occur at a 5% interest. The surplus will cause the interest to fall to 3%. 


  • Demand deposits are created through the fractional reserved system
What is the fractional reserve system
  • It is the process in which banks hold a small portion of their deposits in reserves and they loan out the excess 
What is a Required Reserve?
  • It is cash that bank keeps on hand 
What is total reserve/actual reserve?

  • TR or AR = RR + ER 
  • RR - required reserves 
  •  ER - excess reserves (loans) 


March 20, 2017

Unit 4 Notes

Why do we use money?
  • What would happen if we didn't have money?
    • The Barter says: Goods & services are traded directly 
      • There is no money exchanged 
What is money
  • Anything that is generally accepted in payment for goods & services 
Money is not the same as wealth or income
  • Wealth is the total collection of assets that store value. 
  • Income is a flow of earnings per unit of time. 
What can money be used as?
  1. Medium of exchange. (Buy goods & services)
  2. Unit of account.(Measuring the value of goods & services)
  3. Store of value.
What are the three types of money?
  • Representative money (IOU's)
  • Commodity money (Salt, Gold, Silver, Cigarette)
    • Something that performs the function of money & has alternative uses.
  • Fiat money (Paper money, Coins) 
    • Money because the government says so. 
What are six characteristics of money
  1. Durability 
  2. Portability 
  3. Divisibility 
  4. Uniformity 
  5. Limited supply
  6. Acceptability 
What are the three types of money supply?

  • Liquidity- ease with which an asset can be accessed & converted into cash (liquidized) 
  1. M1
    • *High liquidity* 
    • includes coins, currency, & checkable deposit (personal & corporate checking accounts which are the largest component of M1) 
    • In general this is the money supply.
  2. M2
    • *Medium liquidity* 
    • M1 + Savings deposits (Money market accounts), & Mutual Funds below money look 
  3. M3
    • *Low liquidity* 
    • M2 + Time deposits above money look






Wednesday, March 8, 2017

March 06, 2017

Fiscal Policy Notes


How does the government stabilize economy?
  • Government has two different two boxes it can use
    • Fiscal Policy- Action by congress to stabilize the economy. 
What is Fiscal Policy?
  • Change in the expenditures or taxes revenues of federal government
    • Two tools of Fiscal Policy 
      • Taxes- Government can increase or decrease taxes.
      • Spending- Government can increase or decrease spending.
  • Fiscal Policy is enacted to promote our nation's economic goals: full employment, price stability economic growth. 
What is Deficit, Surplus, & Debt? 
  • Balanced budget
    •  Revenue = Expenditures 
  • Budget deficit
    • Revenue < Expenditure 
  • Budget Surplus 
    • Revenue > Expenditure 
  • Government Debt 
    • Sum of all deficits- Sum of all surpluses 
  • Government borrows from 
    • Individuals
    • Corporations 
    • Financial Institutions 
    • Foreign entities or foreign government 
What are the Fiscal Policies two options? 
  • Discretionary Fiscal Policy (Action)- 
    • Expansionary fiscal policy - DEFICIT 
    • Contractionary fiscal policy - SURPLUS 
  • Non-Discretionary Fiscal Policy ( No Action) 
What are the three types of Taxes?
  1. Progressive Taxes- Takes a larger percent of income from high income groups (takes more from rich people)  ex: Current Federal System 
  2. Proportional Taxes (Flat Rate) - Takes the same percent from all income groups. ex:20% fiat income tax on all.
  3. Regressive Taxes- Takes laeger percent from low income groups (takes more from poor people) ex: Sales Taxes 
What is Contractionary Fiscal Policy? 
  • (The BRAKE) Laws that reduce inflation, decrease GDP (Close an inflationary gap) 
    • Deficit ↓ Surplus ↑
    • Decrease Government Spending 
    • Tax Increases 
    • Combinations of the two 
What is the Expansionary Fiscal Policy?
  • (The GAS) Laws that reduce unemployment & increase GDP (Closes Recessionary gap) 
    • Increases Government Spending
    • Decreases taxes on Consumers